A Method for Evangelical Lutheran Casuistry

LCMS Winkel casuistry sessions often suffer from amnesia. In order to draw on the wisdom of the past as well as of your contemporaries, consider these guidelines when you are confronted by cases of conscience.

1. List the commandments and other biblical precepts that could have a bearing on the question.

• Commandments.
• Other biblical precepts (moral Law, not OT ceremonial or civil law).
• Biblical examples (from narratives) that have God’s judgment expressed with them.
• Necessary deductions from biblical principles.
• Natural Law.

2. If necessary, research the state of the question. For example, if it is a question that touches on law or medicine, you should consult experts in these areas.

3. Research the wisdom of the past. Read pastoral theologies and trustworthy casuistry works to see what arguments they bring from Scripture and Natural Law. For example:

English:

• C. F. W. Walther, American Lutheran Pastoral Theology (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2017).
• Wilhelm Loehe, The Pastor, ed. Charles P. Schaum (Saint Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 2015).
• Ewald M. Plass, ed., What Luther Says (Saint Louis: Concordia Pub. House, 1959). (But don’t treat Luther as equal to the Bible. He has to prove his opinions, just like anyone else.)
• Martin Luther, Letters of Spiritual Counsel, ed. Theodore G. Tappert (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1955).
• Fritz, John H. C. Pastoral Theology: A Handbook of Scriptural Principles Written Especially for Pastors of the Lutheran Church (St. Louis: Concordia Pub. House, 1932).
• Norbert H. Mueller and George Kraus, Pastoral Theology (St. Louis: Concordia Pub. House, 1990) (sometimes lax and permissive).
• CTCR documents, https://www.lcms.org/CTCR (sometimes lax and permissive; remember to examine their arguments; do not simply accept their judgments as authorities).
• “The Doctrinal Resolutions of the National Conventions of The Lutheran Church—Missouri Synod 1847–2004,” available from http://www.lutheranhistory.org/doctresorder.htm .
• Indices of LCMS seminary journals (e.g., http://media.ctsfw.edu).

German and Latin:

• Ernst Eckhardt, Homiletisches Reallexikon nebst Index Rerum (St. Louis: Success Printing Co., 1907–17). This is an index to all the theological literature of the early Missouri Synod.
• Conrad Porta, Pastorale Lutheri, das ist: nützlicher und nötiger Unterricht, von den fürnemsten Stücken zum heiligen Ministerio gehörig (Leipzig : In Verlegung Henningi Grossen, 1586; reprint, Nördlingen: C.H. Beck, 1842). This is one of the first Lutheran casuistry works, drawn from Luther’s writings.
• Georg Dedekenn and J. E. Gerhard, eds., Thesaurus consiliorum et decisionum, 2nd ed., 4 vols. (Hamburg: Hertel, 1671). This is arguably the greatest work of Lutheran casuistry. For more information, see Benjamin T. G. Mayes, Counsel and Conscience: Lutheran Casuistry and Moral Reasoning after the Reformation (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011).
• Friedrich Balduin, Tractatus . . . de . . . casibus . . . conscientiae (Wittenberg: Helwig, 1628). One of the first single-author Lutheran casuistries.
• Consilia theologica witebergensia (Frankfurt am Mäyn: Balthasar Christoph Wust, 1664). A large collection of Wittenberg opinions, with valuable source material on the intra-Lutheran syncretistic controversy.

4. Discuss your findings with peers. Hear their counsel and evaluate it.

5. Make the decision that is least likely to be sinful, that is, safest from externally violating God’s moral Law. I.e., instead of asking how far one might be able to go without violating God’s moral Law, ask how God’s moral Law can most safely be honored and kept. Distinguish between what is objectively right and wrong, realizing that people sometimes do right actions for bad purposes, but wrong actions cannot be done for good purposes.

6. Record the case, the decision, and the arguments that support the decision.

7. Have peace of conscience! Luther: “If such a thoroughly doubtful and rare case occurs, whether in this or other articles and matters, which cannot be decided on the basis of any Scripture or book, then one should have a good pious man or two give advice and speak to the matter; and after they have given advice and spoken, [one should] also remain with their decision and advice without any wavering or doubt. For even if they do not exactly hit the pinnacle of what is right in such obscure matters, yet such a small mistake does not hurt anything, and it is better finally to have peace and calm with disadvantage and less correctness than continuously to seek the most pointed and strictest correctness—which one will never find anyway—with indefinite discord and unrest” (Walther, Pastoral Theology, 300; WA 30/3:222, cf. AE 46:287–88).

Benjamin T. G. Mayes
All Saints’ Day
Nov. 1, 2016 A+D

Organization of Classic Lutheran Casuistry

Early Lutherans had a rich casuistry literature, which gave them guidance on difficult pastoral, moral, and doctrinal questions. Little of this has been translated, so a glance at the contents is useful, showing how they organized their thinking on these cases of conscience. For more on this, see my book:
Mayes, Benjamin T. G. Counsel and Conscience: Lutheran Casuistry and Moral Reasoning after the Reformation. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011.

Georg Dedekenn, Johann Ernst Gerhard, and Christian Grübel, eds., Thesaurus Conciliorum et Decisionum (1671 ed.)[1]

The work is organized around the “Three Estates”: church, civil government, and home (but here dealing just with issues of marriage).

I. Churchly Issues. The organization is somewhat haphazard. Main topics include:

A. Doctrinal matters.

B. Call process.

C. Church fellowship issues.

D. Baptism.

E. Lord’s Supper.

F. Church discipline and rights of pastors (or pastor-hearer relations).

G. Funerals.

II. Political Issues. Much of this would not be relevant for our purposes. It would instead be useful for Lutheran ethics or moral theology.

III. Marital Issues. Here are the issues:

A. Church Marriage Courts

B. Celibacy

C. Concubinage

D. Polygamy

E. Betrothals

F. Consent of Parents, Tutors, and Relatives

G. Sexual Intercourse Between Betrothal and Marriage

H. Prohibited Grades of Relationship

J. Marriage Ceremony (Priestly Blessing)

K. Separation from Bed and Board

L. Divorce (for various causes)

M. Remarriage

Friedrich Balduin, De casibus conscientiae[2]

Book 1. On conscience and its cases in general (pp. 1–44).

Book 2. On actions of man concerning God and religion (pp. 45–532). This section includes issues of doctrine, the use of Baptism and the Lord’s Supper, and many other topics.

Book 3. On the actions of man concerning heavenly spirits (pp. 533–848). This section also deals with evil spirits, possessed people, melancholy people, wizards and witches, divination, and ghosts.

Book 4. On the actions of man concerning human matters (pp. 849–1281). Topics include the human body, the care of the mind, good fortune, lifestyle (genus vitae), call to the ministry of the Word, ordination of ministers of the Church, preaching duty, administration of Baptism, administration of the Lord’s Supper, use of the keys of the Church, beauty and order in the Church (liturgy and ceremonies), civil government, marriage, duties of parents and children, duties of brothers, sisters, and neighbors, masters and servants, and behavior with one’s neighbor.

Porta, Pastorale Lutheri[3]

1. On the worthiness and highness of the holy preaching office (3–15).

2. On the call of preachers (16–44).

3. On studying (45–56).

4. On the preachers’ gifts, and their manner of teaching, etc. (57–71).

5. On teaching (72–121).

6. On rebuking (122–187).

7. On comforting (188–242).

8. On admonishing and warning (243–281). [Notice the division of pastoral duties according to 2 Tim. 3:16; Rom. 15:4!]

9. On praying (282–298).

10. On the external life and behavior of preachers (299–318).

11. On the marriage of priests, and how they should govern their wives, children, and servants (319–339).

12. On marriage matters in general (340–373).

13. On baptizing (374–386).

14. On matters of confession and on the key of releasing and binding (387–414).

15. On distributing sacraments (415–444).

16. On diligent care of the poor (445–462).

17. On the depressed [Schwermüthigen], afflicted, and possesed: how to deal with them (463–492).

18. On the sick and evildoers who have forfeited their lives, who are to be visited and comforted (493–520).

19. On funerals, or the ceremonies at burials (521–529).

20. On the support and salary of preachers (530–542).

21. On resistance to and cross of genuine preachers (543–552).

22. On the comfort and reward of faithful preachers (552–567).

23. On unfaithful preachers, sectarian spirits, fanatics, their manner and characteristic (568–586).

24. On the punishment and demise of unfaithful and false teachers, heretics, and sectarian spirits (587–598).

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[1] Georg Dedekenn and Johann Ernst Gerhard, eds., Thesauri Consiliorum Et Decisionum Volumen Primum, Ecclesiastica Continens, 2nd ed. (Jena: Zacharias Hertel, 1671); See Benjamin T. G. Mayes, Counsel and Conscience: Lutheran Casuistry and Moral Reasoning after the Reformation (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 110–14, 143–45.

[2] Friedrich Balduin, Tractatus Luculentus, Posthumus, Toti Reipublicae Christianae Utilissimus, De Materiâ rarissimè antehac enucleatâ, Casibus nimirum Conscientiae (Wittenberg: Paulus Helwigius, 1628).

[3] Conrad Porta, ed., Pastorale Lutheri: Das Ist Nützlicher Und Nöthiger Unterricht von Den Fürnembsten Stücken Zum Hl. Ministerio Gehörig (s.l., 1597); Conrad Porta, Pastorale Lutheri: das ist: Nützlicher und nöthiger Unterricht von den vornehmsten Stücken zum heil. Ministerium gehörig, und richtige Antwort auf mancherlei wichtige Fragen: Für anfangende Prediger und Kirchendiener (Nördlingen: Beck, 1842). I cite the 1842 edition.

Note Card Method of Writing

My main tip for writing is to use a version of the note card method. Here is how I write.

• Your best thoughts will come to you as you read and interact with texts. So you need to capture those thoughts on paper as you are reading.
• Write out your thoughts, with one thought or one paragraph per sheet of paper. The benefit of having only one thought or paragraph per sheet of paper is that when it comes time to write, you can easily shuffle your notes into any order you like. If you take all your notes in a word processor document or a notebook, you can't easily shuffle the notes around, and you probably won't remove content that should be removed.
• I prefer to use half-sheets of paper, three-hole punched, and put into a statement-size binder. Others prefer to use note cards. 
• At the top of the sheet of paper, write the topic. I use all caps.
• At the bottom of the sheet of paper, write a footnote if one is needed. This might just be a short reference, like: Mayes, How to Write, p. 42.
• After you take your first note from a text, type up the bibliography for that text in your computer. This could be done using bibliography software (I use Zotero), or it could just be in a word processor document. Format it for footnotes.
• In your notes, distinguish somehow between your summary of what the text said, and your own thoughts and reflections. I distinguish between them by writing a footnote with a reference if I am summarizing someone else, and putting curly brackets around, or an eighth-note (musical note) beside, my own thoughts.
• Early on, think about what the outline for your paper might be. But you don't have to decide this at the beginning. It will become obvious to you as you take notes.
• Eventually, you will have your notes, and you will have an outline. Now put your notes into order, according to your outline. You will find that you can't use some of your notes because they don't contribute anything to the purpose of the paper. That's to be expected.
• Type up the notes. You'll have to add some transition sentences. Some of your reflections will serve as the "conclusion" section. 
• Done! That's your paper.

The method makes writing so much easier, once you implement it. The beauty of it is that you do 90% of the writing while you are engaged with the text, which is when your best thoughts will occur.

Lutheran Theology Reading List

==FIRST==

Read through the entire Bible. I prefer NKJV.
Read the entire Book of Concord. I prefer the classic 1921 translation of Dau and Bente (Concordia Triglotta).
Leonard Hutter, Compend of Lutheran Theology. This will put the right theological categories into your mind and help you to make sense of all future theological readings.

Johann Gerhard, Sacred Meditations. Free old translation, free audiobook, or new translation.
August Friedrich Christian Vilmar, The Theology of Facts versus the Theology of Rhetoric: Confession and Defense. Translated by Roy A. Harrisville. Fort Wayne: Lutheran Legacy, 2008.

==NON-THEOLOGICAL, BUT VERY IMPORTANT==

Cal Newport, Deep Work.
David Allen, Getting Things Done.

==NEXT BOOKS==

Benjamin T. G. Mayes, ed., Martin Luther on Holy Baptism: Sermons to the People (1523-39).
Johann Gerhard, On Interpreting Sacred Scripture and Method of Theological Study, Theological Commonplaces I-II.
The Brotherhood Prayer Book.
Concordia Commentary Series. Galatians recommended as the first purchase.
Bengt Hägglund, History of Theology.
Augustine, On Christian Teaching. (Excellent handbook on biblical interpretation and preaching.)
Michael W. Holmes, trans., The Apostolic Fathers
Timothy Schmeling, ed., Lives & Writings of the Great Fathers of the Lutheran Church.
Johann Gerhard, Commentary on 1 and 2 Timothy.
Valerius Herberger, The Great Works of God: Genesis. 
Valerius Herberger, The Great Works of God: Exodus.
Luther’s Works (series). Especially suggested are the volumes on Church Postil (LW 75-79).
Theodore G. Tappert, ed., Luther: Letters of Spiritual Counsel.
Paul Althaus, The Ethics of Martin Luther.
Paul Althaus, The Theology of Martin Luther.
Johann Gerhard, Schola Pietatis (Series). This is Gerhard's moral theology.
Werner Elert, Eucharist and Church Fellowship in the First Four Centuries.
Hermann Sasse, Letters to Lutheran Pastors (Series).
Gerhard, On Christ, Theological Commonplaces Exegesis IV.
Gerhard, On the Church, Theological Commonplace XXV.
CFW Walther, Pastoral Theology.
Peter C. Bender, Lutheran Catechesis: A comprehensive guide to Catechesis for a Lutheran Congregation.
Paul H. D. Lang, Ceremony and Celebration.
Pastoral Care Companion (CPH).
Tom G. A. Hardt, On the Sacrament of the Altar: A Book of the Lutheran Doctrine of the Lord’s Supper (Concordia Theological Seminary Press).

Bible Treasury Table of Contents

You can make your own collection of treasures from Sacred Scripture!  Simply: 1) get a blank book, 2) as you read the Scriptures or hear sermons and notice things you want to remember, figure out what topic your discovery belongs to, 3) write the verse reference, the verse, and/or your notes on the page of your book dedicated to that topic.  Limit one topic per page.  If you fill up a page, note at the bottom right-hand corner of the page where you are continuing this topic.  4) Use this index to note the pages where your topics can be found, so that you can come back to your notes later.  This index is organized according to the Ten Commandments (for the Christian life, love, and morality), and the Apostles’ Creed (for the Christian faith and doctrine).  Feel free to add to or subtract from this list, according to your own needs. 

1^st Chief Part (10 Commandments)

The Law

              Moral Law

              Ceremonial Law

              Civil Law

Love

1^st Commandment

Promises of the 1st Commandment

Threats of the 1st Commandment

Virtues and Vices:

Knowledge of God from His Word

Ignorance or false views of God

Atheism

Polytheism

Judaism

Islam

Anti-Trinitarians

Pagan Philosophy

             

Fear of God

Love toward God

Trust in God

Humility

Patience

Hope

False Worship of the True God

Superstition

Idolatry (worshipping other gods, especially images)

Trust in Created Things

Fleshly Security toward God

Hate of God

Hypocritical Love of God

Loving Self or Created Things above God

Doubting God

Pride and Presumption (sense of entitlement)

Impatience and Grumbling Toward God

2^nd Commandment

Promises of the 2nd Commandment

Threats of the 2nd Commandment

Virtues and Vices:

Reverence

Irreverence

Worship and Invocation of God’s Name

Neglecting to Use God’s Name

Neglecting to Invoke God’s Name and Worship Him

Blasphemy (speech against God and His Word)

Magic/Witchcraft

Fortune-telling

Spiritism

Prayer

Invocation of the Saints

Praise

Thanksgiving

Sacrifice

Neglecting to Thank God

Confession of the Faith and Witnessing to Others

Neglecting to Confess the Faith

God-Pleasing Oaths/Vows

God-Displeasing Oaths/Vows

Breaking Oaths/Vows

Lying by God’s Name

Blessing

Cursing (when permitted/commanded)

Cursing (when forbidden)

Wishing Others Evil

3^rd Commandment

Promises of the 3rd Commandment

Threats of the 3rd Commandment

Sabbath

Holiness

Church Year

Virtues:

Gathering for Divine Service

Church Duties: Preachers

              Preaching and Teaching

              Impart Sacraments

              Shepherding / Guidance

Church Duties: Hearers

Hearing Preaching

Use of the Holy Sacraments

Monetary Contributions to Preserve the Preaching Office and Congregation

Vices:

Neglecting/despising the Visible Church

Neglecting/despising the Ministry

Neglecting/despising the Word

Neglecting/despising the Sacraments

False Preaching or Imparting of Sacraments

4^th Commandment

Promises of the 4th Commandment

Threats of the 4th Commandment

Family Duties: Parents

              Christian Instruction in the Home

Family Duties: Children

Civil Government

Civic Duties: Rulers

Civic Duties: Subjects

Justice

Courts

5^th Commandment

Promises of the 5th Commandment

Threats of the 5th Commandment

Murder

Suicide

Killing Animals Permitted

The Sword

War

              Capital Punishment

Anger

Hate

Revenge

Patience Toward Enemies

Peace-Making

Preserving the Lives of Others

6^th Commandment

Promises of the 6th Commandment

Threats of the 6th Commandment

Holy Marriage

              Definition of marriage

              Persons qualified for marriage

              How to enter marriage

              Purpose of marriage

Family Duties: Men

Family Duties: Women

Sex

Procreation

Chastity

Unchaste Touching

Unchaste Speech

Unchaste Clothing

Celibacy

Nudity

Adultery

Fornication

Masturbation

Homosexuality

Seduction

Sins of the Eyes

Prostitution

Incest

Polygamy (Plural Marriage)

Moderation

Asceticism

Drugs and Alcohol

Drunkenness

Sloth (Over-eating)

Fasting

7^th Commandment

Promises of the 7th Commandment

Threats of the 7th Commandment

Stealing/Theft

Robbery

Cheating in Business

Unfair Pricing

Usury

Lawsuits

Show of Right

Love of Money

Possessions

Poverty

Work

Laziness

Gambling

8^th Commandment

Promises of the 8^th Commandment

Threats of the 8^th Commandment

Lying

Truth

Secrecy

Betrayal

Mockery

Slander

Protecting Reputation

Contracts

Deception

Gossip

9^th and 10^th Commandments

Promises of the 9^th and 10^th Commandments

Threats of the 9^th and 10^th Commandments

Coveting / Lust / Concupiscence

Temptation

What Does God Say About All These Commandments?

Fulfillment of the Law

Use of the Law: Curb, Rule, and Mirror

Sin

Evil

Original Sin

Actual Sin (Sins of Action: Commission or Omission)

Mortal and Venial Sins (Ruling and Non-Ruling Sins)

“Sin against the Holy Spirit”

Sins that cry out

Approving of the Sins of Others

Scandal

Repentance & Confessing our Sins

Good Works

2^nd Chief Part (Creed)

Gospel

1) I believe

Faith

In God the Father

God

Plurality of Persons

Unity of Substance

Almighty

Attributes of God

Maker of heaven and earth

Creation

Angels

Humanity is Male or Female

Body

Soul

Image of God in Man

Providence and Preservation of Creatures

2) And in Jesus Christ, His only Son, our Lord

              Divinity of Christ

3) Who was conceived by the Holy Spirit, born of the Virgin Mary

Humanity of Christ

Unity of Christ

Communication of Attributes

Virgin Mary

4) Suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified, died, and was buried,

Offices of Christ: Prophet

Offices of Christ: Priest

              Obedience

              Atonement/Reconciliation

              Intercession

State of Humiliation

5) He descended into hell;  The third day He rose again from the dead;

State of Exaltation

6) He ascended into heaven and sits at the right hand of God, the Father Almighty.

Offices of Christ: King

7) From thence He will come to judge the living and the dead.

Last Judgment

8) I believe in the Holy Spirit,

Holy Spirit’s Divinity

Holy Spirit a person

Holy Scripture

              Rules of Interpreting Scripture

9) The holy Christian Church, the communion of Saints,

Church

Church Councils

Call Process for Preachers

Church Government

Holy Sacrament of the Altar

10) The forgiveness of sins,

Holy Baptism

Holy Absolution

Free Will

Justification by Faith

Adoption

11) The resurrection of the body

              Regeneration

              Mystical Union with God

              Resurrection

12) And the life everlasting.  Amen.

Eternal Life

Predestination (Election) unto Eternal Life

Hell

Purgatory

3^rd Chief Part (Prayer) See 2^nd Commandment.

4^th, 5^th, and 6^th Chief Parts (Baptism, Absolution, and Sacrament of the Altar): See Creed

How to Write a Research Paper in Historical Theology

The Parts of a Research Paper

A research paper in historical theology has three parts: 

1. The thesis and state of the question, which summarizes and categorizes the secondary sources. 
2. Body, which includes your arguments based on the primary sources. 
3. The conclusion, which situates your findings in the state of the question.

Thesis and State of the Question

Forget a cute literary hook to grab the reader. This is OK for a speech, though. You should catch your reader by showing that you have something to say.

Thesis. The paper should not be “exploring” or “examining” a topic, but rather “demonstrating” or “proving” a thesis. You may not know exactly what the thesis is until you are half-way through taking notes.

State of the Question. Give the state of the question. This is a paradigmatic analysis of what has been done, with notation of the materials which are to be used.

1. Ask, “What are the secondary writers saying about the primary sources?”
2. Discuss the status controversiae. Which of the secondary sources are correct?
3. Say, “I have something to say that others haven’t done.”

Do this in about two or three paragraphs. This gives a “warrant for starting” your essay. It shows that you have something to say, and that you know what has been said. You have to cover the secondary sources, but it can’t overwhelm your essay. It should be about 10% of the essay.

Body

The body of the research paper focuses predominantly on analysis of primary texts. Nevertheless, it can have dialogue with secondary sources. Names of other scholars can be included there in the body text. Sometimes this is helpful to make points over against someone else.

Conclusion

A conclusion must conclude. It should not introduce new evidence. It cannot state more than what you set out at the beginning to prove. It must stay within the boundaries established by the materials you have examined. The conclusion should show that you have advanced the state of the question to a new position.

Conclusions of historical papers are usually generalizations. We then question these generalizations. No generalization ever quite fits, but you need to do it. For example, I wrote on Luther on marriage and sexuality. At the end I generalized to depict Luther (on the basis of my analysis of his writings) as a champion of chastity rather than a liberator in sexual matters.

The conclusion should be short.

The conclusion must not go beyond your primary sources! For example, if you have analyzed five books by Luther, you cannot say that Luther never says X. You can say that Luther does not say X in these five books!

The conclusion must take what you have proved in the body and situate it with reference to the previous state of the question. This could be: (1) Confirming the position of some previous researchers by finding the same thing in hitherto unresearched primary sources. (2) Challenging the position of other previous researchers by a new examination of previously researched primary sources. (3) Challenging the position of other previous researchers by an examination of previously unresearched primary sources.

It should not: (4) Simply confirm the position of some previous researchers on the basis of previously researched primary sources. (5) It should not ever make conclusions on the basis of secondary sources.

Footnotes

Footnotes will be longest and most plentiful in the beginning state-of-the-question section, perhaps up to 2/3 of the page. The body will have consistent footnotes, but usually taking up less than 1/4 of the page, since your analysis will be focused on one document at a time. The conclusion is where you can say what you think. You don’t need any footnotes here.

Do not put excursûs in footnotes.

A research paper that uses the notes-bibliography style actually does not need a bibliography. A thesis with several chapters does.

How to Do the Research

In any given field there are tools. Never assume that you’re the first one to ask a question. Most tools have a text history.

1. Get a quick overview of the topic by using a theological encyclopedia.
2. Read both primary and secondary sources, going back and forth from one to the other.
3. Ask, “What are the secondary sources saying about the primary sources?”
4. Figure out the state of the question. Which of the secondary sources are correct?
5. Figure out what you have to say that that others haven’t said.
6. Start framing the introductory paragraph at the beginning of your research. Ask, “Where am I going with this essay? What is my topic? How does my topic construe? How will I go about it?”

Secondary sources are what scholars are saying about your topic. Primary sources are historical documents closest to what you’re researching. For example, if you are writing an article about Luther, an article in the Oxford Encyclopedia of the Reformation is a secondary source; a sermon by Luther is a primary source.

Primary sources have the most proximate relationship to the topic you are studying. These are in three forms:

1. From the era itself, either published or in manuscript. (Example: a 1529 printing of the Small Catechism.)
2. Critical editions. These add biblical allusions and sources. (Example: the Small Catechism in the Weimar edition of Luther's works.)
3. Translations. Be sure to check the reliability of these. Be careful, sometimes they add Scripture references that the original author did not include, and sometimes the editors are not careful to note their additions (e.g., by using square brackets). Also, the footnotes referring to scholastics may not have been read by the original author (Luther). The editorial references may not be helpful. So try also to use the original.

Secondary sources are more distant, and base themselves on an analysis of the primary sources. Secondary sources may never be used to fill up gaps in your knowledge.

Do not cite tertiary sources (i.e., sources that base themselves or summarize secondary sources, like Luther Digest, Lutheran Cyclopedia, or Wikipedia). But you can use the tertiary sources to find the secondary and primary sources. Then disregard whatever you read in the tertiary source.

What is the requisite level of detail for this paper? It depends on the level of detail in the primary and secondary sources. Never thin it out. Either take a bigger or smaller topic. Either pare it down or bulk it up with real material.

How to approach documents from the past? It should usually bother you intellectually. Don’t write about that, but use it. Notice the differences between then and now. What does this tell me about his context? Hold the dissonance in methodological abeyance. How do you use your subjectivity? Let the difference between you and the text drive you to understand why, what is it out there that’s generating this? Don’t get into correctness.

Once you have the topic, you still have to be tentative about its shape. Don’t prejudge the boundaries, shape, and conclusion.

Also, you cannot ignore secondary literature. Questions to ask of the documents: Is it a topic at all? Is it new, or just new to me? You need to know the state of the question, which is the history of scholarship. This shows you what has been said before.

Steal bibliographies from others. They cannot be copyrighted. Ask, “Is there something they have found that I have missed?” But you can’t steal footnotes. You can, however, use their footnotes to find spots in the primary sources and add “cf. Somebody” or “contra Somebody.” The most recent resources should have the best bibliography. Make a hierarchy of sources and ask, “What’s more important?” “By their footnotes ye shall know them.” Look at a good article’s footnotes to see how to do your own.

Keep a good balance between primary and secondary sources. You have to say something new and different based on the old texts. Is there something missing in the secondary sources?

Sometimes you have to write with the risk of ignorance. As your bibliography gets better you know your weaknesses better. To handle ignorance, you should use the standard references (e.g., Quasten for patristics; Althaus and OER for Luther).

Bibliography Software

Software like Zotero (www.zotero.org, free) will save you a lot of time. They do several things to help you:

1. Store the bibliographical data.
2. Format it automatically, for either footnotes or a bibliography.
3. Insert footnotes with a few clicks.
4. Import bibliographical data straight from the internet. For example, you can add books straight from the CTS library website, or from ATLA Religion Index. Why type it out when you don’t have to?

The other way is to have a master bibliography file for each project. Enter the full bibliographical data right after you take your first note.

Computerized Searches

Start with the big databases. There has been a proliferation of digital resources since 2000. Nowadays 16th-century and 17th-century texts from Germany have been scanned and are available for reading, free online, and often for download as PDF. One of the best gateways to this material is http://kvk.bibliothek.kit.edu.

Through http://www.ctsfw.edu/resources/more-library-resources/ CTS students have access to:

• ATLA Religion Database, which indexes journal articles and chapters of multi-author books. (But limited scope. For example, it handles religion, but not historiography.)
• The Chicago Manual of Style (the same as Turabian, but more detailed).
• Oxford Reference. (A source for short articles on many topics, with recent research and bibliographies.)
• Theological Research Exchange Network. (An index of dissertations and theses. Be sure to check the option “exact phrase.”)

“Index Theologicus” from the University of Tübingen is a valuable search engine for historical theology and church history: http://www.ixtheo.de/.

Google Book Search can be a great way to search for discussions on an obscure phrase. Simply place the phrase in quote marks. Another option is to limit the search to a specific time period. https://books.google.com/.

When using search engines, be sure to use “and” and “not,” and, if necessary, the option for an “exact phrase.”

Know the limitations of each database. (1) Scope. (2) Search oddities and user-friendliness. (3) Realize that you have to search on all synonyms.

Encyclopedias

Stay away from general encyclopedias. Specialist ones are OK, if articles are signed and written by a specialist. Never cite a one-volume encyclopedia (like Lutheran Cyclopedia). Yet you may use these to get a quick overview of a topic.

Taking Notes

Leave yourself a paper trail. My main tip is to use a version of the note card method of writing. Here is how I write.

• Your best thoughts will come to you as you read and interact with texts. So you need to capture those thoughts on paper as you are reading.
• For secondary sources, I take quick notes on separate pieces of paper for each book or article that you read. What I do is this: I use half-sheets of paper, 3-hole punched and put into a binder. I write the name of the book or article at the top of the sheet. Then I take notes on the book by basically making an index with page numbers, so that I can easily find a place in the book or article later on. Finally, after reading the book or article, I write a short summary of it in only one or two sentences.
• For primary sources, write out your thoughts, with one thought or one paragraph per sheet of paper. The benefit of having only one thought or paragraph per sheet of paper is that when it comes time to write, you can easily shuffle your notes into any order you like. (If you take all your notes in a word processor document, you can't easily shuffle the notes around.)
• I prefer to use half-sheets of paper, three-hole punched, and put into a statement-size binder. Others prefer to use note cards.
• At the top of the sheet of paper, write the topic. I use all caps.
• At the bottom of the sheet of paper, write a footnote. Don’t do partial footnotes, even if you plan to add it later. You will forget where you got this. Don’t take notes without citing your source. Devise a short title. This might just be a short reference, like: Mayes, How to Write, p. 42. Each paragraph should be footnoted. There should be at least one footnote per paragraph, usually on the last sentence, and after every closed quote. Use a new footnote when the page or paragraph of the source changes.
• After you take your first note from a text, type up the bibliography for that text in your computer. This could be done using bibliography software, or it could just be in a word processor document. Format it for footnotes.
• Are you quoting, paraphrasing, or analyzing? If it’s a quote, use quotation marks and a footnote. If it’s a paraphrase, just foonote it. If it’s your own analysis, use some sort of mark to yourself so that you remember that you wrote that. (I use musical eighth-notes.) When taking notes, should you copy or paraphrase? You should usually paraphrase analytically. A short, ten-page essay needs no large quotations. A thirty-page essay can have a few. You may quote phrases, but most of the words should be yours.
• Early on, think about what the outline for your paper might be. But you don't have to decide this at the beginning. It will become obvious to you as you take notes.
• Eventually, you will have your notes, and you will have an outline. Now put your notes into order, according to your outline. You will find that you can't use some of your notes because they don't contribute anything to the purpose of the paper. That's to be expected.

How to adapt your method to the computer? Always take notes the same way. You have to be able to put all your notes together and see them. Never take notes in more than two ways, e.g., hardcopy and computer. On computer, keep separate files for each source. When you copy a paragraph of notes for use in your paper, then mark in your notes where you used it. Footnote carefully!

What I sometimes do is to use a computer document to hold the quotations I plan to use, footnoted. In the paper notes, I include the beginning and end of the quote, footnoted, plus whatever analysis I have. This way I can tell where the quote belongs in the essay.

How do I go about arguing the case? Establish a narrative shape. (Tell a story.) Ask, “How does this stuff flow? Chronologically? Topically? Subsets of the controversy? Examining commentaries? Don’t follow the outlines of secondary sources.

Typing it Up

• Type up the notes.
• Standardize your formatting. Make a style sheet and use paragraph styles. Always use the same styles.
• You'll have to add some transition sentences. Don’t write unfootnoted transition paragraphs, though. How to do a major transition? Just throw in a subheading.
• Some of your reflections will serve as the "conclusion" section.
• Never use “ibid.” If you move text in a word processor, you’re in trouble.
• Make sure your work is being backed up after every work session. I use Google Drive, and then my computer does weekly backups, and then from time to time I do yet another backup, to an external drive that I keep somewhere else. (I should really keep this offsite.)
• No one writes books; you can only write articles. Put enough articles together, and you have a book. Also, no one, in fact, writes whole papers. We can only write sentences and paragraphs, and then ask, “Where does this fit?” “What is the shape of this essay?”

Done! That's your paper. If I didn't use this process, there would be no way I could write the kinds of articles and books that I have written. The method makes it so much easier, once you implement it. The beauty of it is that you do 90% of the writing while you are engaged with the text, which is when your best thoughts will occur.

How to Read the Bible the First Time

If you've never read the Bible before, don't just start at the beginning and read straight through. Here's my advice. Go in this order.

• Genesis (all)
• Exodus 1-20
• Numbers 11-27
• Psalms: 1, 18, 22, 23, 32, 34, 36, 42-43, 45-46, 51, 69, 70, 72, 87, 93, 95, 98, 100, 110-134
• Isaiah: 4-9, 14, 25-26, 40, 42, 49-56, 59-66
• Matthew through Jude
• The rest of the Old Testament
• Revelation
• Apocrypha (optional)

My reasoning is that for someone to understand the full significance of Jesus as the fulfillment of the OT Scriptures, as well as the solution to man's predicament of sin and God's wrath, the parts of the OT need to be read first which deal with creation, sin, God's law, and who the people of Israel is. Then we also need to get some of the clearest prophecies of Christ from the Psalms and Isaiah. After that, the Gospels bring you to the heart of the matter--Jesus Christ and His work for us. Acts and the epistles then unpack this truth and life. After that, you can finish up the OT, knowing now what all the sacrifices and prophecies are pointing forward to. Finally, read Revelation, which I think is best understood after you have the entire context of the Bible in your mind. Finally, reading the Apocrypha (books between the Old and New Testaments)--which Martin Luther considered not equal to the Holy Scriptures but nevertheless useful and good to read--is helpful for understanding the background of the New Testament, and the culture of the church.

The four Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John) are the heart of the Bible. The prophets and apostles did not just write about God, they wrote about "God with us" (which in Hebrew is "Immanuel"), that is, about how God created us and interacts with us, condemning sin, but also sending His own Son to save us, and bring us back to Himself.

Is Jesus in Exodus?

Valerius Herberger's commentary on Exodus led me to ponder the many different ways in which the Lord Jesus Christ is "in" Exodus.

Lutheran Commentaries on Exodus

Luther (sermons, 1524–1527)

David Chytraeus, 1556.

Victorinus Strigel, 1566.

Valerius Herberger, 1606–7

David Runge, 1614.

Georg Calixt (!), 1641.

Joh. Georg Hagemann, 1738.

Is Jesus in Exodus?

Yes and no. “Jesus” is the name given by the angel after He had been conceived by His mother Mary (Matt. 1:21). So if we ask, “Was the 2nd person of the Trinity, the eternal Word of God, in Exodus,” then the answer is yes. But at the time He had not yet taken on human nature, and He had not yet taken on the name “Jesus.” If we keep that in mind, then it’s fine to speak of “Jesus” being in Exodus, since our Jesus is the same one who was with Israel in the book of Exodus.

In what ways is Jesus in Exodus?

1. As God; 2. in theophanies; 3. as typified in the Passover lamb; 4. as typified in the exodus; 5. as typified in Moses; 6. as typified in Israel; 7. as typified in the tabernacle; and 8. as commentator.

How is Jesus in Exodus as God?

Wherever Exodus speaks of God, it is speaking of God the holy Trinity, and Jesus is the 2nd person of the Trinity. John 14:10, “I am in the Father, and the Father [is] in Me.” John 1:1: “In the beginning was the Word and the Word with with God, and the Word was God.”

Here V. Herberger notes that when God does something in Exodus, Jesus is doing that with His Father and the Holy Spirit: “JESUS, with His heavenly Father and the Holy Spirit, comes to the aid of the Israelites when they pray (Exod. 2:24)” (sermon 4, cf. sermons 27–36, 42–44, 46).

How is Jesus in Exodus in theophanies?

God appears to Moses and Israel several times in Exodus, such as in the burning bush and in the pillar of cloud and fire. But John 1:18 says, “No one has seen God at any time. The only begotten Son, who is in the bosom of the Father, He has declared Him.” So when God appears to people and is seen by them, I think we should agree that God the Father was not who appeared, but rather God the Son. Exod. 23:20: “Behold, I send an Angel before you to keep you in the way and to bring you into the place which I have prepared. 21 Beware of Him and obey His voice; do not provoke Him, for He will not pardon your transgressions; for My name is in Him.”

And so V. Herberger notes: “JESUS speaks with Moses from the burning bush (Exod. 3:4)” (sermon 5; cf. sermons 6–19). Also, “JESUS, the LORD, went before the Israelites in a pillar of cloud by day and a pillar of fire by night (Exod. 13:21)” (sermon 41; cf. sermons 47–48).

How is Jesus in Exodus as typified in the Passover lamb?

The warrant for seeing Jesus as typified in the Passover lamb comes from several places in the NT. One of the clearest is 1 Cor. 5:7: “Christ, our Passover, was sacrificed for us.” And liturgical Christians sing the words of John the Baptist from John 1:29: “[O Christ] The Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world!”

So V. Herberger says, “JESUS, the perfect Passover Lamb (Exod. 12:3, 5, 8)” (sermon 38; cf. sermons 39).

Was Jesus the angel of death?

Exod. 12:12. ‎The Lord Himself will strike the firstborn. By doing this He is also punishing the false gods. How so?

Cf. v. 21. A big issue is that God actively does the destruction. He does not just permit it. Distinction between evil of fault and evil of punishment. (We make the distinction between evil and bad.) Doctrine: God's punishment. Antecedent and consequent will of God. Warning: repent when calamity strikes. Humble yourself under the mighty hand of God. Antithesis: much Lutheran thinking; universalism.

23. God will not allow the destroyer to strike you. So now it seems that God Himself is not doing the killing.

Val. Herberger seems to say both yes and no: yes in work, no in person. “JESUS, the LORD, passes through Egypt at midnight by a strong angel of death, and strikes all the firstborn, and prepares a great joy for His people (Exod. 12:12, 29)” (sermon 37).

How is Jesus in Exodus as typified in the exodus (the departure from Egypt)?

The departure from Egypt is the exodus. This is a type of Jesus’ work of salvation toward us. The warrant is 1 Cor. 10:1–6: “Moreover, brethren, I do not want you to be unaware that all our fathers were under the cloud, all passed through the sea, 2 all were baptized into Moses in the cloud and in the sea, 3 all ate the same spiritual food, 4 and all drank the same spiritual drink. For they drank of that spiritual Rock that followed them, and that Rock was Christ. 5 But with most of them God was not well pleased, for their bodies were scattered in the wilderness. 6 Now these things became our examples.”

So the passing through the Red Sea with the destruction of the Egyptians and bring the Israelites into freedom in the wilderness to worship God at His tabernacle: that all is a type of Christ’s work of saving us through His suffering, death, resurrection, and our Baptism.

And so V. Herberger writes: “JESUS, the LORD, helped Israel out of the hand of the Egyptians dry-footed through the Red Sear, and still helps all godly Christians today through the red sea of Holy Baptism to the freedom of the children of God (Exod. 14:29[-30])” (sermon 49).

With this also goes the feeding with Manna in the wilderness. Jn 6:32–33: “32 Then Jesus said to them, “Most assuredly, I say to you, Moses did not give you the bread from heaven, but My Father gives you the true bread from heaven. 33 For the bread of God is He who comes down from heaven and gives life to the world.””

V. Herberger: “JESUS, the mighty bread of heaven (Exod. 16:32)” (sermon 57).

Also, the miraculous water from the rock in Exod. 15. The old LCMS Bible commentator Kretzmann on 1 Cor. 10:1-5 sees the water and manna as types of the Eucharist: "In this respect the food and drink of the Eucharist are fitting, and likewise surpassing, antitypes of the miraculous food and drink of Israel in the wilderness. Now as then it is the Word of God which gives effectiveness to the meal, but with varying success in believers and unbelievers. The miraculous water is further explained by Moses: For they were drinking, during the entire course of their wilderness journey, from the spiritual Rock accompanying them; but that Rock was Christ. While their mouths partook of the water flowing at their feet, their spirits were refreshed through faith in Christ, present with them as the Rock of their salvation."

How is Jesus in Exodus as typified in Moses?

The basic warrant for seeing Moses as a type of Christ comes from Moses’ prophecy about Christ in Deut. 18:15: “The LORD your God will raise up for you a Prophet like me from your midst, from your brethren. Him you shall hear.”

Here V. Herberger notices that “JESUS is carried by Mary into Egypt as Moses is carried by Miriam to the daughter of the king of Egypt. Again, Jesus preserves all believers in the communion of the Christian Church as He preserves Moses in the ark of bulrushes (Exod. 2:3, 10)” (sermon 2).

How is Jesus in Exodus as typified in Israel?

The basic warrant for seeing Israel collectively as a type of Christ comes from Hos. 11:1, quoted by Matt. 2:15: “When Israel was a child, I loved him, And out of Egypt I called My son” (Hos. 11:1).

Here Valerius Herberger notices similarities between the people of Israel and the Lord Jesus. “JESUS is sought by Pharaoh, the cruel-hearted king of Egypt, among the sons of the Israelites, just as He is sought by Herod among the children of the Bethlehemites” (sermon 1).

How is Jesus in Exodus as typified in the tabernacle?

The answer is vast. The tabernacle was “the copy and shadow of the heavenly things” (Heb 8:5) and had “a shadow of the good things to come” (Heb. 10:1; cf. Col. 2:17). We must remember that the real reason (not a pretend reason) for why God wanted to bring Israel out of Egypt is so that they could worship Him. Exod. 3:18: “The LORD God of the Hebrews has met with us; and now, please, let us go three days’ journey into the wilderness, that we may sacrifice to the LORD our God.” Exod. 5:1: “Thus says the LORD God of Israel: ‘Let My people go, that they may hold a feast to Me in the wilderness.’ ” And so the last half of the book is seemingly boring details about the construction of the tabernacle, and the conclusion of the book is not Passover, not the Red Sea, not the manna, but when the tabernacle is set up and God’s glory fills it (Exod. 40). The goal of divine liberation is true divine worship.

V. Herberger: “JESUS, the pure, golden mercy seat of the Church, which overlies, adorns, and covers the wooden (that is, earthly) arks of our hearts with blood as costly as gold, so that His eternal Father is pleased to make an everlasting covenant of peace with us (Exod. 25:10–17)” (sermon 31).

“JESUS, the worthy Church’s blessed showbread and memorial bread, who is laid before us on the table of the Holy Gospel and the most worthy Sacraments for the feeding of our souls (Exod. 25:23–30)” (sermon 32).

“JESUS, the lampstand of gold in the sanctuary of His Church and of our hearts, with the ever-burning light of His consolation (Exod. 25:31)” (sermon 33).

“JESUS builds and inhabits the holy Christian Church, just as He did the tabernacle among the Israelites long ago (Exod. 26:1; 27:9)” (sermon 34).

How is Jesus in Exodus as commentator?

Besides being “in” Exodus as that which is written about, Jesus in the Gospels also comments on the text of Exodus. In this way He is “in” Exodus by means of being the best, most authoritative commentator on the text. The Jews have their Targums, Talmud, and Midrash given them what they think are the authoritative comments on the text of Moses, but we have the comments of the eternal son of God, so by means of Jesus’ mouth, we have the key to Exodus.

The Lord Jesus commented on Exodus 20 in the Sermon on the Mount, for example (Matt. 5–7).

Also, He spoke of the meaning of what God said at the Burning Bush (Matt. 22:32). “God is not the God of the dead, but of the living.”

V. Herberger: “JESUS speaks the words when the holy Ten Commandments are given from Mount Sinai (Exod. 20:1–2)” (sermon 3). “JESUS, the Mediator of the new covenant, must comfort us when the holy Ten Commandments have terrified us (Exod. 20:18)” (sermon 4).

Indexing

Here's some advice for Lutheran pastors and divinity students. You should index. Why index? Have you ever been in a conversation with someone, and he asked a question or presented an argument leaving you without an answer? Have you ever felt like you read something about this topic once upon a time, but now you can’t find the information? Some people read books and underline sentences and words. But then when they want to find that information, they have to page through the entire book, and often the information is lost. Things are better, though not perfect, if you keep a list of main points in the back of the book with page numbers. This way, if you can remember that the information is in a particular book, you can often find the info. you’re looking for. This is basically creating your own, personalized index for that book. This is absolutely a good thing to do, but it’s not enough. What you need is a master index for all your books. If all you have is a few books, finding the book that has the information you want is no problem. But if you have read hundreds of books, it’s a lot harder—even impossible.

A master index that you keep in a word processing document will allow you to keep track of all the information you come across.

• Preaching and teaching with more depth
• Gives more time to gather insights
• Aids memory
• Solutions for apparent contradictions: ready defense
• Trusty backup for emergencies and busy weeks
• Aids thinking and study skills
• Prepares material for future writing

How to make a master index? I use one text document, with all the topics for theology, ethics, history, and whatever else I want to remember in alphabetical order. I have it set up so that each letter of the alphabet is easily searchable. For example, if I just searched on “G,” I would get too many hits. So my headings are “G..”, so that when I search on that, I go right to the beginning of the G section.

Where to get your topics? You can make it from scratch, but I found it helpful to copy the subject index from a short, general theology text. Steven Mueller’s book We Believe, Teach, and Confess has a good subject index for this purpose.

Make sure the main word is the first word of the index entry. So instead of “Martin Luther,” it should be “Luther, Martin”. Instead of “Nature of God” it should be “God, Nature of”. A good index will show you how this is done.

Then you need to have an abbreviated reference system. For example, if I’m taking notes on Johann Gerhard’s Theological Commonplace: On the Nature of God, it would be far too cumbersome to put the author’s name and title on each line where the topic comes up. What you don’t want:

Holy Spirit is Received through Hearing–Johann Gerhard, On the Nature of God and on the Trinity, page 203.

Make a bibliography at end of index with the abbreviations.

Instead, take the first letter of the author’s last name and a number. If this is the first book you’ve read by an author with a last name starting with G, then this book will be referred to as “g1”. Make a bibliography at the end of your master index with the abbreviations/codes you’re using, so that you can always find what “g1” refers to, for example.

Then, you can enter the code into the index and save a lot of space. Here’s an example.

Holy Spirit is Received through Hearing–g1:203

Now, what should you index?

What you should index depends on what you want to find at some later time. As a pastor and theologian, I find it most helpful to find Bible passages dealing with any and every topic. So as I read Holy Scripture, I make lists of index entries and then later enter those entries into my master index.

As Lutherans, we recognize the Lutheran Confessions as being a correct exposition of Holy Scripture, and a binding norm of doctrine among us. Lutheran pastors and commissioned church workers vow before God and the Church to teach and preach in accordance with the Lutheran Confessions. Moreover, the Confessions are a profound source of theological insight, wisdom, and Scriptural exposition. So I love to add references to the Lutheran Confessions to my index.

Of course, as you read other books, you’ll want to make index entries and then enter them into your Master Index, using an abbreviation.

You should read theological journals, especially Logia, CTQ, CJ, and Lutheran Quarterly. Index these using standard abbreviations, or make up your own abbreviation. Be consistent and index either by volume or by date. Note that some journals, like Logia, restart the page numbering in each issue. For them you’ll have to specify what issue it is.

It’s a good idea to keep a physical file system for pamphlets, magazine clippings, handouts, and anything physical that’s too thin to put on your bookshelf. I have a large filing cabinet with one file folder for each topic, sorted alphabetically. It would be a good idea to put the word “Files” in your master index for each folder in your physical files. No need to index the contents of the folders. This way you’ll know at a glance whether you need to go open up your physical files to see if something important is there.

Finally, electronic files. I keep a file on my computer, backed up to Google Drive, with subfolders that match the topics in my Master Index. If I make a subfolder there, I put a 0 in the Master Index. That tells me that there's an electronic folder with documents relating to this topic.

So that's it! I recommend this to you because it will make your life much easier and your ministry more fruitful in the future.